【簡譯】美洲煙草簡史
【注：吸煙有害健康】
The history of tobacco use in the Americas goes back over 1,000 years when natives of the region chewed or smoked the leaves of the plant now known as Nicotiana rustica (primarily in the north) and Nicotiana tabacum (mostly in the south). After European colonization, tobacco would become the most profitable crop exported from the Americas.
? ? ? ? ? 美洲運(yùn)用煙草的歷史可以追溯到一千多年前，當(dāng)時(shí)該地區(qū)的土著人會(huì)咀嚼或吸食現(xiàn)在被稱為 Nicotiana rustica（黃花煙草，俗稱阿茲特克煙草，主要在北方）和 Nicotiana tabacum（栽培煙草，主要在南方）的植物葉子。歐洲殖民后，煙草成為美洲出口的最有利可圖的作物。 ?
This plant grew wild but came to be cultivated by the natives for use in religious rituals and hunting parties as it was thought to expand the mind and heighten one's sensations overall. After 1492 CE, European colonization of the West Indies and South and Central America shifted the focus of tobacco to recreational use. By the mid-1500s CE, tobacco had become the most profitable export from the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of the Americas, primarily Nicotiana tabacum.
? ? ? ? ? 這種植物生長在野外，但后來被當(dāng)?shù)厝伺嘤N植，用于宗教儀式和狩獵聚會(huì)，他們認(rèn)為煙草能拓展思維，提高人的整體感覺。1492年后，歐洲人在西印度群島、南美洲和中美洲的殖民統(tǒng)治使煙草的用途轉(zhuǎn)向娛樂。到16世紀(jì)中期，煙草已成為西班牙和葡萄牙美洲殖民地最賺錢的出口產(chǎn)品，主要品種是Nicotiana tabacum（栽培煙草）。
The secret of their Nicotiana tabacum blend was closely guarded by the Spanish – it was against the law to share seeds or plants with non-Spaniards – but travelers or merchants would do so anyway. When England began to colonize North America in the late 16th century CE, Sir Walter Raleigh (l. c. 1552-1618 CE) introduced the older, rougher, strain of tobacco – N. rustica – to Britain. By this time (c. 1585 CE), tobacco had already become a popular, recreational drug in the country, but N. rustica was a much harsher smoke than the Spanish N. tabacum.
? ? ? ? ? 西班牙人嚴(yán)守栽培煙草（Nicotiana tabacum）的秘密（在當(dāng)時(shí)與非西班牙人分享種子或植物是違法的），但旅行者或商人還是會(huì)冒險(xiǎn)傳播。英國在16世紀(jì)晚期開始殖民北美時(shí)，沃爾特·雷利爵士（Walter Raleigh，1552-1618 年，CV28056172）將更古老、更原始的煙草煙草品種Nicotiana rustica（黃花煙草）帶回英國。此時(shí)（1585年左右），煙草已成為英國流行的消遣性藥物，但黃花煙草的煙霧比西班牙的栽培煙草刺鼻得多。
The English colony of Jamestown was established in 1607 CE and a hybrid of various strains of N. tabacum was brought and planted by the merchant John Rolfe (l. 1585-1622 CE) in 1610 CE. Rolfe's crop not only made him wealthy but saved the Jamestown Colony of Virginia and further popularized tobacco use in England, throughout Europe, and in the rest of the world. Tobacco plantations expanded throughout Virginia as Jamestown itself began to grow, taking more land from the Native Americans of the region, and this practice finally resulted in the Powhattan Wars (1610-1646 CE) which drove out most of the original inhabitants and made more room for even larger plantations.
? ? ? ? ? 英國詹姆斯敦殖民地（英國在美洲建立的第一個(gè)永久性的殖民地）建立于1607年，商人約翰·羅爾夫 (John Rolfe，1585-1622年)?在1610年帶來并種植了多種煙草雜交種。羅爾夫種植煙草不僅使他致富，還拯救了弗吉尼亞的詹姆斯敦殖民地，并進(jìn)一步在英國、整個(gè)歐洲和世界其他地方普及了煙草的消費(fèi)。隨著詹姆斯敦本身的發(fā)展，煙草種植園擴(kuò)展到整個(gè)弗吉尼亞州，殖民者從當(dāng)?shù)氐拿乐拊∶袷种袏Z走了更多的土地，這種做法最終導(dǎo)致了盎格魯-波瓦坦戰(zhàn)爭（1610-1646年），殖民者驅(qū)逐了大部分原住民，為更大的種植園騰出了更多空間。
The decrease in the practice of indentured servitude after 1676 CE, and the intense labor required for tobacco crops, led to the increase in importing African slaves and enslaving Native Americans. As tobacco became more popular, and more commercial businesses were established for its cultivation and sale, more land and more slaves were required. The original use of tobacco by the natives was forgotten as the plant became the most lucrative cash crop of the Americas.
? ? ? ? ? 1676年后，契約奴役的做法有所減少，而煙草種植需要大量勞動(dòng)力，這導(dǎo)致進(jìn)口非洲奴隸和奴役美洲原住民的情況增多。隨著煙草越來越受歡迎，種植和銷售煙草的商企越來越多，種植園需要更多的土地和更多的奴隸。當(dāng)煙草成為美洲最賺錢的經(jīng)濟(jì)作物時(shí)，當(dāng)?shù)厝俗畛跏褂脽煵莸男袨榫捅贿z忘了。
It continued to fuel the colonial economy, contributed to the unrest which resulted in the American War of Independence (1775-1783 CE), increased tensions in the country leading up to the American Civil War (1861-1865 CE), and was the cause of the Tobacco Wars of the early 20th century CE. In the modern era, tobacco has been recognized as the leading cause of preventable deaths but continues in use by people around the world as one of the most accepted and popular recreational drugs.
? ? ? ? ? 煙草助長了殖民地經(jīng)濟(jì)，引發(fā)了導(dǎo)致美國獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭（1775-1783年）的動(dòng)亂，加劇了內(nèi)戰(zhàn)（1861-1865年）前的緊張局勢，并引發(fā)了20世紀(jì)初的煙草戰(zhàn)爭。現(xiàn)代社會(huì)，煙草已被公認(rèn)為加速死亡的主要原因，但作為最廣為接受和流行的消遣性藥物之一，世界各地的人們?nèi)猿掷m(xù)吸煙。
美洲原住民對煙草的運(yùn)用及殖民化過程中煙草的發(fā)展
Tobacco, along with the "three sisters" (beans, maize, and squash), potatoes, and tomatoes, was among the most significant crops cultivated by the natives prior to European colonization of the Americas. The plant was considered sacred and was frequently smoked or chewed as an appetite suppressant, a stimulant, for medicinal purposes, and to allow for communion with the spirit world. When Christopher Columbus (l. 1451-1506 CE), arrived in Cuba, the indigenous people offered him tobacco as a gift. Columbus seized on the plant and exported it to Spain where it found a large market.
? ? ? ? ? 煙草與“三姐妹”（豆類、玉米和南瓜）、土豆和西紅柿，是歐洲殖民美洲前當(dāng)?shù)厝朔N植的最重要的農(nóng)作物之一。這種植物被認(rèn)為是神圣的，人們經(jīng)常熏制或咀嚼這種植物，作為抑制食欲、興奮劑、藥用以及與靈魂世界交流的工具。當(dāng)克里斯托弗·哥倫布（1451-1506年）抵達(dá)古巴時(shí)，當(dāng)?shù)厝藢煵葑鳛槎Y物贈(zèng)予他。哥倫布收下并將其帶回西班牙，他在那發(fā)現(xiàn)了一個(gè)潛在的龐大市場。
Columbus instituted the feudal system of the encomienda which offered the natives protection from himself and his men, primarily, in return for labor. Tobacco became one of the main crops harvested on the large colonial plantations and, as demand for the plant grew in Europe, the Spanish overlords worked the natives harder. The Spanish priest Bartolomé de las Casas (l. 1484-1566 CE), who later witnessed the encomienda system first-hand, noted the brutality of the Spanish masters in his A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. After relating a number of atrocities the indigenous people suffered at the hands of the Spanish, he comments:
? ? ?By the ferocity of one Spanish Tyrant (whom I knew), above two hundred Indians hanged themselves of their own accord [rather than continue to suffer in servitude] and a multitude of people perished by this kind of death. (23)
? ? ? ? ? 哥倫布在那里設(shè)置了委托監(jiān)護(hù)制 (Encomienda，最初出現(xiàn)在羅馬帝國統(tǒng)治下的伊比利亞半島，武力強(qiáng)大的人保護(hù)武力弱小的人，以換取他們的服務(wù)。后來西班牙王室在菲律賓和美洲進(jìn)行殖民活動(dòng)時(shí)用該制度管理和統(tǒng)治印第安人或當(dāng)?shù)卦用?/strong>)，為當(dāng)?shù)厝颂峁┍Ｗo(hù)，使他們免受自己和手下人的侵害，主要是以勞動(dòng)作為回報(bào)。煙草成為大型殖民種植園收獲的主要作物之一，隨著歐洲對煙草需求的增長，西班牙領(lǐng)主讓當(dāng)?shù)厝烁优Φ毓ぷ鳌Ｎ靼嘌滥翈煱屯新迕?/strong>·德·拉斯卡薩斯（Bartolomé de las Casas，1484-1566年）后來親眼目睹了委托監(jiān)護(hù)制，他在《西印度毀滅述略》（A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies）中指出了西班牙統(tǒng)治者的殘暴。在講述了土著人在西班牙人手中遭受的一系列暴行后，他評論道：
? ? ? ? ? 由于西班牙暴君（我認(rèn)識(shí)他）的兇殘，超過兩百名印第安人自愿上吊自殺（以免繼續(xù)遭受奴役之苦），還有許多人因此而喪生。(23)
The Spanish had refined the original plant so that it smoked more easily and had a more pleasant taste, and this, of course, made it even more popular abroad. In 1561 CE, the French diplomat Jean Nicot de Villemain (l. 1530-1604 CE), who had been stationed in Lisbon, Portugal, returned to France with tobacco plants. He introduced tobacco to the French court as a medicine that could cure headaches and calm the nerves. Tobacco became an instant success at court, then in monasteries, and finally among the people in general. Nicot was rewarded by the French crown and his name was given to the active ingredient in tobacco, nicotine. The new market in France required greater efforts in production in the Americas. As tobacco became more profitable, more land was taken for production and more natives for forced labor.
? ? ? ? ? 西班牙人對最初的煙草植物進(jìn)行了改良，使其更易吸食，口感更舒適，當(dāng)然，這也使其在國外更受歡迎。1561年，駐扎在葡萄牙里斯本的法國外交官讓·尼科·德·維爾曼（Jean Nicot de Villemain，1530-1604年）帶著這種煙草植物回到法國。他將煙草作為一種可以治療頭痛和鎮(zhèn)靜神經(jīng)的藥物介紹給法國宮廷。煙草立即在宮廷、修道院和普通民眾中流行起來。尼科受到了法國王室的獎(jiǎng)賞，煙草中的有效成分尼古?。?/strong>Nicotine）也以他的名字命名。法國的新市場要求美洲加大生產(chǎn)力度。隨著煙草的利潤越來越高，更多的土地被用于生產(chǎn)煙草，更多的當(dāng)?shù)厝吮粡?qiáng)迫勞動(dòng)。
詹姆斯敦與約翰·羅爾夫
This same pattern would repeat itself in North America after Jamestown was established by the British in 1607 CE. Between 1607-1610 CE, Jamestown struggled, losing up to 80% of its population and, in 1609 CE, resorting to cannibalism just to survive. In 1610 CE, the merchant John Rolfe arrived along with Sir Thomas Gates (l. c. 1585-1622 CE) and Thomas West, Lord De La Warr (l. 1577-1618 CE) and reversed the colony's fortunes. De La Warr instituted a policy of conquest without compromise against the native Powhatan Confederation while Gates reformed both the colonists and their settlement. It was Rolfe, however, who saved the colony, expanded it, and provided justification for taking more Native American land when the tobacco seeds he had arrived with flourished and he became wealthy from the production and sale of Virginia tobacco.
? ? ? ? ? ?1607年，英國人在北美建立了詹姆斯敦殖民地，此后，同樣的模式在北美重演。在1607-1610年間，詹姆斯敦舉步維艱，人口流失高達(dá) 80%；在1609年，為了生存而采取同類相食的方式。161年，商人約翰·羅爾夫（John Rolfe）與托馬斯·蓋茨爵士（Thomas Gates，約1585-1622年）和德拉瓦爾勛爵托馬斯·韋斯特（Thomas West，Lord De La Warr，約1577-1618年）來到詹姆斯敦，扭轉(zhuǎn)了殖民地的命運(yùn)。德拉瓦爾勛爵對當(dāng)?shù)氐牟ㄍ咛孤?lián)盟采取了不妥協(xié)的征服政策，而托馬斯·蓋茨則對殖民者及其定居點(diǎn)進(jìn)行了改革。然而，正是約翰·羅爾夫拯救并擴(kuò)大了詹姆斯敦殖民地，且在他帶來的煙草種子茁壯成長、從弗吉尼亞煙草的生產(chǎn)與銷售中致富后，為奪取更多美洲原住民的土地提供了理由。 ??
Tobacco had already been cultivated in the regions around Virginia by the native Adena culture (c. 800 BCE - 1 CE), as evidenced by artifacts such as the Adena Pipe and others, and was continued by the Hopewell tradition (c. 100 BCE-500 CE), successors of the Adena, in modern-day West Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and Indiana. The native Powhatans had inherited tobacco cultivation, but this was the N. rustica variety. Rolfe's blend was the smoother N. tabacum, but his skill with the plant made it more popular than Spanish tobacco. Scholar Iain Gately comments:
? ? ?John Rolfe's experiment heralded a rapid and permanent change in the fortunes of England's colonial enterprise. Englishmen understood the value of tobacco and needed little persuasion to finance its cultivation. The London marketplace welcomed increasing shipments of Virginian weed. The tobacco crop of 1618 was 20,000 pounds. Four years later, despite an Indian attack that killed nearly one-third of Virginia's colonists, the settlement sent a crop of 60,000 pounds. By 1627, the shipment totaled 500,000 pounds, and two years later that tripled. (72)
? ? ? ? ? 在弗吉尼亞州周圍地區(qū)，當(dāng)?shù)氐陌⒌录{文化（約公元前800年至公元前1年）早已開始種植煙草，阿德納煙斗等文物就是證明，在現(xiàn)代西弗吉尼亞州、俄亥俄州、賓夕法尼亞州、肯塔基州和印第安納州，阿德納文化的繼承者霍普韋爾文化（約公元前100年至公元前500年）也在繼續(xù)種植煙草。土著波瓦坦人繼承了煙草種植，不過是黃花煙草（Nicotiana rustica）。羅爾夫的混合煙草是口感更順滑的栽培煙草（Nicotiana tabacum），但他對煙草的精湛加工技藝讓這種煙草比西班牙殖民地生產(chǎn)的煙草更受歡迎。學(xué)者伊恩·蓋特利評論道： ??
? ? ? ? ? 約翰·羅爾夫的試驗(yàn)預(yù)示著英國殖民事業(yè)的命運(yùn)將發(fā)生迅速而永久的變化。英國人了解煙草的價(jià)值，幾乎不需要說服就可以為其種植提供資金。倫敦市場對越來越多的弗吉尼亞煙草表示歡迎。1618年的煙草產(chǎn)量為20000磅。四年后，盡管印第安人的襲擊導(dǎo)致弗吉尼亞近三分之一的定居者喪生，但定居點(diǎn)還是運(yùn)來了6萬磅煙草。到1627年，煙草總產(chǎn)量達(dá)到50萬磅，兩年后又增加了兩倍。(72)?
Although De La Warr had pushed a policy of conquest, it had not proved successful, and after he returned to England Rolfe tried a different approach: alliance through marriage. In 1614 CE, he married Pocahontas (l. c. 1596-1617 CE), daughter of the Powhatan chief (referred to by the colonists as Chief Powhatan). It does not seem that Rolfe initially thought of his marriage as a political strategy – the couple were genuinely attracted to each other – but it served the purpose of uniting the natives and colonists for a few years and allowed for greater expansion of tobacco plantations.
? ? ? ? ? 盡管德拉瓦爾勛爵托馬斯·韋斯特曾推行征服政策，但事實(shí)證明這并不成功，羅爾夫回到英國后嘗試了另一種方法：通過聯(lián)姻結(jié)盟。1614年，他與波瓦坦酋長（殖民者稱其為波瓦坦酋長）的女兒波卡洪塔斯（Pocahontas，寶嘉康蒂，約1596-1617年）結(jié)婚。羅爾夫最初似乎并沒有將他們的婚姻視為一種政治策略（這對夫婦是真愛），但這在幾年內(nèi)起到了團(tuán)結(jié)當(dāng)?shù)厝伺c外來者的作用，并使煙草種植園得到了更多發(fā)展。
奴隸制與煙草
These farms were worked by indentured servants – people who, voluntarily or involuntarily, agreed to serve a master for seven years in return for passage to the New World and a land grant – but as the farms expanded, more labor was required than these servants could provide. Gately comments:
? ? ?A solution appeared to Jamestown's labour problem in the form of a Dutch trading ship which dropped anchor in Chesapeake Bay in 1619. The colonists bought twenty African slaves who were set to work in the tobacco fields. The Dutch traders recognized a promising market and returned in subsequent years with more slaves for sale and slavery quickly became essential to the colony's economy. (73)
? ? ? ? ? ?契約仆人在這些農(nóng)場工作，他們自愿或非自愿地同意為主人服務(wù)七年，以換取前往新大陸的通行證和一份土地贈(zèng)予，但隨著農(nóng)場的擴(kuò)張，需要的勞動(dòng)力超過了這些仆人所能提供的數(shù)量。蓋特利評論道：
? ? ? ? ? 1619年，一艘荷蘭商船在切薩皮克灣拋錨，解決了詹姆斯敦的勞動(dòng)力問題。殖民者購買了20名非洲奴隸，讓他們在煙草田里工作。荷蘭商人意識(shí)到（奴隸）市場前景廣闊，隨后幾年又帶著更多的奴隸回售，奴隸制很快成為殖民地經(jīng)濟(jì)的重要組成部分。(73)
These early slaves seem to have been treated differently than those who were brought to the colony later. Scholar David A. Price notes:
Although it is tempting to assume that these first recorded Africans in English America were also the first slaves, there is evidence to suggest they were not. They may instead have had the legal position of indentured servants, like many of the white newcomers, eligible for freedom after completing a period of service. (197)
? ? ? ? ? 這些早期奴隸的待遇似乎與后來被帶到殖民地的奴隸不同。學(xué)者大衛(wèi)·A·普萊斯（David A. Price）指出
? ? ? ? ? 盡管人們很容易認(rèn)為英屬美洲記錄的第一批非洲人也是第一批奴隸，但證據(jù)表明事實(shí)并非如此。相反，他們可能擁有契約仆人的合法地位，就像許多新來的白人一樣，在完成一段時(shí)間的服務(wù)后將有資格獲得自由。(197)
Part of the evidence Price references is the presence of free blacks in the colony prior to 1640 CE who had received land just as white indentured servants had. The year 1640 CE marks a turning point in the treatment of black servants as opposed to white servants in the case of the black indentured servant, John Punch. Punch objected to his treatment by his master and left his service, without fulfilling his contract, in the company of two other servants who were white. When the three were caught, the two white servants had their servitude extended by four years while Punch was sentenced to slavery for the rest of his life. Slavery was institutionalized in Virginia by 1661 CE and, although there were still free blacks in the colony, race now played a much larger part in community affairs and policies than it had previously.
? ? ? ? ? ?普萊斯提到的部分證據(jù)是，在1640年之前，殖民地中存在自由黑人，他們與白人契約仆人一樣獲得了土地。1640年是黑人契約仆人（典型例子：約翰·龐奇（John Punch））與白人契約仆人待遇的轉(zhuǎn)折點(diǎn)。龐奇反對主人對他的待遇，在沒有履行合同的情況下，與另外兩名白人契約仆人一起逃離了。三人被抓后，兩名白人仆人的奴役期被延長了四年，而龐奇則被判終身為奴。到1661年，弗吉尼亞州的奴隸制已經(jīng)制度化，雖然殖民地中仍有自由黑人，但種族在社區(qū)事務(wù)和政策中的作用已遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過以前。
擴(kuò)張與經(jīng)濟(jì)
By 1661 CE, the Powhatans had been defeated in three separate wars and the colonists had discovered that Native Americans did not make the best slaves. This realization did nothing to stop them from selling the natives to others, but the white landowners found African slaves to be stronger and able to endure labor longer. The colony expanded further as more indentured servants completed their contracts and were given land and the farms in the interior began encroaching on the lands the Powhatans had retreated to.
? ? ? ? ? 到1661年，波瓦坦人在三次不同的戰(zhàn)爭中被打敗，殖民者發(fā)現(xiàn)美洲原住民并不是最好的奴隸。這一發(fā)現(xiàn)并沒有阻止他們將土著人賣給其他人，但白人地主發(fā)現(xiàn)非洲奴隸更加強(qiáng)壯，能夠忍受更長時(shí)間的勞動(dòng)。隨著越來越多的契約仆人完成契約并獲得土地，殖民地進(jìn)一步擴(kuò)大，內(nèi)陸的農(nóng)場開始侵占波瓦坦人退守的土地。
In 1676 CE, one of the interior landowners, Nathaniel Bacon (l. 1647-1676 CE) mounted a revolt (Bacon's Rebellion) against the governor William Berkeley (l. 1605-1677 CE), demanding better lands for farmers in the interior and the massacre or relocation of the Powhatans still in the area who would sometimes raid these farms. Berkeley refused Bacon's demands, and the insurrectionists then burned Jamestown. The rebellion fell apart when Bacon died of dysentery, but the authorities recognized the danger of continuing to award land grants to indentured servants who might then use their resources to fund revolt and so ended that policy.
? ? ? ? ? 1676年，內(nèi)陸地主之一納撒尼爾·培根（Nathaniel Bacon，1647-1676年）發(fā)動(dòng)叛亂（培根叛亂），反對總督威廉·伯克利（William Berkeley，1605-1677年），要求為內(nèi)陸農(nóng)民提供更好的土地，并屠殺或遷移仍在該地區(qū)的波瓦坦人，他們有時(shí)會(huì)襲擊這些農(nóng)場?？偠讲死芙^了培根的要求，叛亂者隨后燒毀了詹姆斯敦。培根死于痢疾，叛亂隨之瓦解，但當(dāng)局認(rèn)識(shí)到繼續(xù)向契約仆人授予土地的危險(xiǎn)性，因?yàn)檫@些仆人可能會(huì)利用他們的資源來資助叛亂，因此結(jié)束了這一政策。 ??
From that point on, manual labor on the plantations would be taken care of by Africans purchased as slaves. Slaves who worked tobacco plantations soon were regarded as more valuable than those who worked in cotton or rice fields because tobacco required more skill to harvest. New slaves were apprenticed to older veterans of the fields to learn these skills and slave families were frequently separated when a skilled tobacco slave was kept but his or her family sold.
? ? ? ? ? 從那時(shí)起，種植園的體力勞動(dòng)就由買來的非洲奴隸承擔(dān)了。在煙草種植園工作的奴隸很快就被認(rèn)為比在棉花田或稻田工作的奴隸更有價(jià)值，因?yàn)闊煵莸氖斋@需要更多的技能。新來的奴隸要拜田里的老手為師，學(xué)習(xí)這些技能，如果一個(gè)熟練的煙草奴隸被保留，但他或她的家人卻被賣掉時(shí)，奴隸家庭往往會(huì)被分離。
煙草與革命
As the European demand for tobacco grew, more land was required for plantations and so, first, more Native Americans had to be removed from their tribal lands and, second, more Africans were needed as slaves. The colonies of Maryland and North Carolina became the next two greatest tobacco producers after Virginia, and by the early 1700s CE, all three were exporting thousands of pounds of tobacco to Europe every year. The British monarchy discouraged the production of cotton in the colonies owing to the economic policy of mercantilism (which balances exports over imports) so tobacco became the primary cash crop. Even though James I of England (r. 1603-1625 CE) objected to tobacco, he could not argue with the profits and settled for taxing tobacco instead of banning it.
? ? ? ? ? 隨著歐洲對煙草需求的增長，種植園需要更多的土地，因此，首先需要將更多的美洲原住民從他們的部落土地上趕走，其次需要更多的非洲人作為奴隸。馬里蘭和北卡羅來納殖民地成為僅次于弗吉尼亞的兩大煙草生產(chǎn)地，到17世紀(jì)初，這三個(gè)殖民地每年都向歐洲出口數(shù)千磅煙草。出于重商主義的經(jīng)濟(jì)政策（出口大于進(jìn)口），英國君主不鼓勵(lì)殖民地生產(chǎn)棉花，因此煙草成為主要的經(jīng)濟(jì)作物。盡管英國的詹姆斯一世（1603-1625年）反對煙草，但他無法與煙草的利潤相抗衡，于是決定對煙草征稅而不是禁止。
The tobacco farmers stamped their product with seals to identify it, and certain plantations became known for better tobacco than others. Shipments of tobacco would arrive in London where they were handled by merchants, who would push one brand of tobacco for a higher price over others. These merchants also periodically depressed tobacco prices while still providing large loans to the colonial planters. The plantation owners, therefore, found themselves in the position of owing substantial debt they were unable to pay due to depressed London markets.
? ? ? ? ? 煙農(nóng)們在自己的產(chǎn)品上蓋上印章以資識(shí)別，某些種植園的煙草比其他種植園的煙草更出名。煙草運(yùn)抵倫敦后由商人處理，他們以高于其他品牌的價(jià)格推銷一種品牌的煙草。這些商人還會(huì)定期壓低煙草價(jià)格，同時(shí)還向殖民地種植園主提供大量貸款。結(jié)果，種植園主發(fā)現(xiàn)自己欠下了大筆債務(wù)，但由于倫敦市場低迷，他們無力償還。
By this time (c. 1750 CE), tobacco was used in the colonies as currency and so the London merchants could demand payment on the loans in tobacco when planters found they could not pay in cash. This situation contributed to the outrage colonists felt over England's policies in the colonies and encouraged the rebellion that became the American Revolutionary War since a number of the Founding Fathers, including Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, were tobacco farmers.
? ? ? ? ? 此時(shí)（約1750年），煙草已在殖民地作為貨幣使用，因此當(dāng)種植園主發(fā)現(xiàn)無法用現(xiàn)金支付時(shí)，倫敦商人可以要求他們用煙草支付貸款。這種情況加劇了殖民者對英國在殖民地政策的憤怒，并鼓勵(lì)了叛亂，最終演變成美國獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭。包括托馬斯·杰斐遜和喬治·華盛頓在內(nèi)的許多美國開國元?jiǎng)锥际菬熮r(nóng)。
內(nèi)戰(zhàn)與煙草戰(zhàn)爭
Tobacco continued to inform the economy and policies of the United States into the 19th century CE. As the northern states became more industrialized, they required less slave labor, and many abolished the institution. The southern states, however, continued to rely on slaves for labor in the tobacco and cotton fields. Southern goods were frequently shipped to the north and were taxed but, the states felt, nothing of consequence was coming from the north to them as compensation; disagreements over equitable trade and the southern states' defense of slavery finally led to conflict.
? ? ? ? ? 煙草一直影響著美國的經(jīng)濟(jì)和政策，直至19世紀(jì)。隨著北方各州工業(yè)化程度的提高，他們對奴隸勞動(dòng)的需求減少，許多州廢除了奴隸制。然而，南方各州仍依賴奴隸在煙草和棉花田勞動(dòng)。南方的貨物經(jīng)常被運(yùn)往北方并被征稅，但各州認(rèn)為，北方并沒有向他們提供任何有意義的補(bǔ)償；關(guān)于公平貿(mào)易和南方各州捍衛(wèi)奴隸制的分歧最終導(dǎo)致了沖突。
Southern states broke with the union that had been formed after the Revolution, declaring themselves a separate entity, the Confederate States of America. Northern states responded by defining this action as rebellion and so the American Civil War (more properly known as the War Between the States) was begun. By the time the south was defeated in 1865 CE, slavery had been abolished, large plantations could no longer function as they once had, and former slaves now had to be paid a fair wage.
? ? ? ? ? 南方各州與革命后成立聯(lián)邦決裂，宣布自己是一個(gè)獨(dú)立的實(shí)體，即美利堅(jiān)聯(lián)盟國（簡稱“邦聯(lián)”，Confederate）。北方各州（美利堅(jiān)合眾國，簡稱“聯(lián)邦”，Union）的反應(yīng)是將這一行動(dòng)定義為叛亂，于是美國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)（更恰當(dāng)?shù)拿Q是州際戰(zhàn)爭）開始了。到1865年南方戰(zhàn)敗時(shí)，奴隸制已被廢除，大型種植園不能再像以前那樣運(yùn)作，以前的奴隸現(xiàn)在必須獲得合理的工資。
The southern states were able to get around the new model by instituting laws on vagrancy whereby someone (almost always a black man) newly arrived in town, who could not provide a legal address, was arrested and sentenced to work on a local plantation. Planters who were provided with these “workers” were able to produce more tobacco at less cost than others with more modest farms who paid their laborers. The farmers sold their product to a distributor who then marketed it to the public, and those with the cheapest labor grew rich enough to also manage distribution.
? ? ? ? ? 南方各州通過制定流浪法來規(guī)避新模式，根據(jù)這些流浪法，新到鎮(zhèn)上的某個(gè)人（幾乎總是黑人）如果不能提供合法住址，就會(huì)被逮捕并被判處在當(dāng)?shù)胤N植園工作。獲得這些“工人”的種植園主能夠以更低的成本生產(chǎn)出更多的煙草，而其他種植園主的農(nóng)場則較為簡陋，只能向工人支付工資。農(nóng)民將產(chǎn)品賣給分銷商，分銷商再將產(chǎn)品銷售給公眾，那些擁有最廉價(jià)勞動(dòng)力的農(nóng)民逐漸富裕起來，足以同時(shí)管理分銷。
The biggest distributor in the 19th and early 20th centuries was American Tobacco Company founded by James Buchanan Duke (l. 1856-1925 CE) who had nothing to do with production and everything with sales. He acquired all rights to the new cigarette-rolling machine in 1881 CE which was able to produce 400 cigarettes a minute. Having lowered his costs, he cut his prices, forcing competitors out of business who then sold their companies to him, allowing Duke to form a monopoly on the market. He then offered lower compensation to farmers for their crops which eventually resulted in the Tobacco Wars (better known as the Black Patch Tobacco Wars) of 1904-1909 CE in the region of Black Patch, Tennessee, a collection of counties so-named for the dark smoke from the tobacco-curing process.
? ? ? ? ? 19 世紀(jì)和 20 世紀(jì)初最大的經(jīng)銷商是詹姆斯·布坎南·杜克（James Buchanan Duke，1856-1925年）創(chuàng)建的美國煙草公司。他在1881年獲得了新型卷煙機(jī)的所有權(quán)利，這種卷煙機(jī)每分鐘能生產(chǎn)400支香煙。降低成本后，他開始降低香煙價(jià)格，迫使競爭對手倒閉，然后將公司賣給他，使杜克形成了市場壟斷。隨后，他又降低了對農(nóng)民作物的補(bǔ)償，最終導(dǎo)致了1904-1909年田納西州西部地區(qū)的煙草戰(zhàn)爭（又稱黑斑煙草戰(zhàn)爭，所謂的“黑斑”由肯塔基州西南部和田納西州西北部的約30個(gè)縣組成。在此期間，該地區(qū)是全球領(lǐng)先的深色烤煙供應(yīng)商。它因收獲后所經(jīng)歷的木煙和火固化過程而得名。這種類型的煙草主要用于鼻煙、咀嚼煙和斗煙）。??
The wars were a series of conflicts between tobacco suppliers and distributors and a coalition of farmers calling itself the Planter's Protective Alliance which burned storehouses, farms, and warehouses and periodically hanged sharecroppers who worked on farms supplying Duke. The wars ended when the leaders were arrested in 1908-1909 CE and the American Tobacco Company was dismantled by the federal government in 1911 CE.
? ? ? ? ? 戰(zhàn)爭是煙草供應(yīng)商和經(jīng)銷商與自稱為“種植園保護(hù)聯(lián)盟”的農(nóng)民聯(lián)盟之間的一系列沖突，該聯(lián)盟焚燒倉庫、農(nóng)場，并定期絞死在為杜克公司供貨的農(nóng)場工作的佃農(nóng)。戰(zhàn)爭在領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人于1908-1909年被捕后結(jié)束，美國煙草公司于1911年被聯(lián)邦政府解散。
結(jié)束語
Cigarettes had been looked down upon as associated with the lower-class and poor while the pipe or cigar was the preferred method for smoking tobacco by the affluent. Mass production and mass marketing, however, changed that, and by World War I (1914-1918 CE) cigarettes were included in military rations and associated with patriotism. Tobacco use, by this time, had become common practice worldwide, even though some countries had tried to ban it, even going so far as to execute tobacco merchants and users.
? ? ? ? ? 香煙曾被認(rèn)為是與下層社會(huì)和窮人聯(lián)系在一起的，而煙斗或雪茄則是富裕階層吸煙的首選方式。然而，大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)與營銷改變了這種狀況，到第一次世界大戰(zhàn)（1914-1918年）時(shí)，香煙已被列入軍糧中，并與愛國主義聯(lián)系在一起。此時(shí)，盡管一些國家試圖禁止吸煙，甚至處決煙草商和消費(fèi)者，但吸煙已成為全世界的普遍做法。
In the present day, efforts by groups such as the American Cancer Society have proved somewhat more effective and health warnings or images of diseased lungs are required on tobacco products. Tobacco companies are also no longer allowed to advertise on television or in magazines, and health professionals continually stress smoking tobacco as a cause of lung cancer. Even so, people around the world continue to use tobacco in spite of decades of warnings on its dangers.
? ? ? ? ? ?如今，美國癌癥協(xié)會(huì)等組織的努力已被證明更為有效，煙草產(chǎn)品上必須有健康警示或病變肺部的圖像。煙草公司也不被允許在電視或雜志上做廣告，健康專家不斷強(qiáng)調(diào)吸煙是肺癌的誘因之一。即便如此，盡管幾十年來人們一直在警告煙草的危害，但世界各地的人們?nèi)栽诶^續(xù)吸煙。
Recognizing the plant's popularity, some Native American groups are now trying a different approach to curb smoking: to revive the sacred nature of tobacco. Those involved in these efforts claim that they have seen a reduction in the number of smokers in their community who have come to recognize tobacco in its sacred form, carefully cultivated from the earth to final product, as it was over 400 years ago, and so now treat it, and themselves, with greater respect.
? ? ? ? ? 認(rèn)識(shí)到這種植物的受歡迎程度，一些美洲原住民團(tuán)體正在嘗試一種不同的方法來控制吸煙：恢復(fù)煙草的神圣本質(zhì)。參與這些努力的人聲稱，他們已經(jīng)看到社區(qū)中吸煙者的數(shù)量有所減少，他們開始認(rèn)識(shí)到煙草的神圣形式，即從泥土中精心培育到最終產(chǎn)品，就像 400多年前一樣，因此他們對煙草和生命都更加尊重。
參考書目：
de Las Casas, B. & Griffin, N. & Pagden, A. A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. Penguin Classics, 1999.
Drake, S. G. History of the Early Discovery of America and Landing of the Pilgrims. Nabu Press, 2010.
Gately, I. Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization. Grove Press, 2003.
Goodman, J. Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence. Routledge, 1994.
Historical Influences on Contemporary Tobacco Use by Northern Plains and Southwestern American Indians by Stephen J. KunitzAccessed 7 Feb 2021.
Horn, J. A Land As God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America. Basic Books, 2006.
Mann, C. C. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Vintage, 2006.
Mann, C. C. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. Vintage, 2012.
Price, D. A. Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of a New Nation. Vintage, 2005.
The Fight to Keep Tobacco Sacred by Dina Fine MaronAccessed 7 Feb 2021.
原文作者：Joshua J. Mark
Joshua J. Mark是自由撰稿人，曾是紐約馬里斯特學(xué)院的兼職哲學(xué)教授，他曾在希臘和德國生活過，并游歷過埃及。曾在大學(xué)里教授歷史、寫作、文學(xué)和哲學(xué)。
原文網(wǎng)址: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1677/a-brief-history-of-tobacco-in-the-americas/
【注：吸煙有害健康】
