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【簡譯】安土-桃山時代（Azuchi-Momoyama Period）

2023-02-11 10:58 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過 | 我要投稿

上一時代

The Azuchi-Momoyama Period (Azuchi-Momoyama Jidai, aka Shokuho Period, 1568/73 - 1600 CE) was a brief but significant period of medieval Japan's history which saw the country unified after centuries of a weak central government and petty conflicts between hundreds of rival warlords. Oda Nobunaga (r. 1568-1582 CE) would establish himself as the military ruler of Japan, and his castle at Azuchi, east of Kyoto, gives the period the first half of its name. Nobunaga's successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi (r. 1582-1598 CE) would continue his work to unify all of Japan, and his base of Momoyama, south of Kyoto, provides the second half of the period's name. Hideyoshi came unstuck with his two failed invasions of Korea, and the period ended with the succession conflict that would see Tokugawa Ieyasu establish the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868 CE).

? ? ? ? ? 安土-桃山時代（Azuchi-Momoyama Jidai, aka Shokuho Period, 1568/73 - 1600 CE）是日本中世紀歷史上一個短暫但意義非凡的時期，在經(jīng)歷了數(shù)個世紀的中央政府軟弱和數(shù)百個敵對軍閥之間的小沖突之后，這個國家實現(xiàn)了短暫統(tǒng)一。織田信長（公元1568-1582年）確立了自己作為日本軍事統(tǒng)治者的地位，他在京都東部安土的城堡成為這一時期名稱的第一部分。信長的繼任者豐臣秀吉（公元1582-1598年）繼續(xù)他統(tǒng)一日本的工作，他在京都以南的桃山大本營提供了這一時期名稱的第二部分。秀吉因兩次入侵朝鮮失敗而陷入困境，這一時期以德川家康建立德川幕府（公元1603-1868年）的繼任沖突而告終。

室町時代

The Muromachi Period (1333-1573 CE) had been one of turmoil for Japan with the Ashikaga shoguns never quite in control of all their provinces. The biggest crisis came with the Onin War (1467-1477 CE), a civil war which destroyed Heiankyo and created a century-long aftermath of bitter infighting between rival warlords. It would require one warlord to gain total supremacy for Japan to enjoy peace and a stable government again. Oda Nobunaga would turn out to be that man. Nobunaga had expanded his territory gradually throughout the 1550/60s CE from his base at Nagoya Castle in Owari Province, central Japan, as he defeated all comers through a mix of sieges, battles, and diplomacy. He finally seized the capital Heiankyo in 1568 CE and then exiled the last Ashikaga shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, in 1573 CE. With these two actions, the Azuchi-Momoyama Period begins (hence some scholars choose 1568 CE as the start date while others plum for 1573 CE).

? ? ? ? ? 室町時代（公元1333-1573年）是日本的一個動蕩時期，將軍們從未完全控制其所有省份。最大的危機來自于應仁之戰(zhàn)（1467-1477），這場內(nèi)戰(zhàn)摧毀了平安京，并造成了敵對軍閥之間長達一個世紀的激烈內(nèi)斗。日本要想再次享有和平與穩(wěn)定的統(tǒng)治，就需要一個軍閥獲得絕對霸權?？椞镄砰L就是這個人。在整個16世紀50-60年代，信長從他位于日本中部尾張省名古屋城的基地逐步擴大其領土，同時通過圍城、戰(zhàn)斗和外交的結(jié)合擊敗了所有擋路者。他最終在公元1568年奪取了首都平安京，于公元1573年流放了最后一位室町幕府將軍足利義昭。隨著這兩次行動的進行，安土-桃山時代開始了（因此一些學者選擇公元1568年作為開始日期，也有學者則選擇公元1573年）。

織田信長

In 1579 CE and now in control of all central Japan, Oda Nobunaga established a new headquarters at the magnificent Azuchi castle outside the capital on the edge of Lake Biwa, hence this period of history's first name. Nothing remains today of the castle except its stone base, but it was the first to combine a plush residency with defensive features and have the huge multi-storey castle keep that became the norm in Japanese medieval castles. Unfortunately, Azuchi castle was burnt down in 1582 CE but was later rebuilt.

? ? ? ? ? 公元1579年，織田信長控制了整個日本中部地區(qū)，在首都郊外琵琶湖畔宏偉的安土城建立了新總部，因此這段歷史的第一個名字就來自安土城。如今這座城堡除了石頭底座外什么都沒有留下，但他是第一個將豪華住宅與防御設施結(jié)合起來并建造了巨大的多層城堡的人，這成為日本中世紀城堡的標準。不幸的是，安土城在公元1582年被燒毀，盡管后來又重建了。

Nobunaga was able to defeat and maintain his position above rival warlords and to continue to expand his territorial control thanks to his large army which was well-equipped and which included the gifted general Toyotomi Hideyoshi (who would become Nobunaga's successor). Nobunaga was an innovator as he was one of the first Japanese leaders to adopt firearms, his armies having a corps of 3,000 musketeers who, in battle, fired in rotating ranks to create a continuous and devastating volley of fire. Nobunaga's army was also the first to have each man, including the infantry, issued with a full suit of armour. The territories Nobunaga gained were given to his loyal commanders to govern, and the lands of captured warlords were frequently redistributed and relocated to break old ties of loyalty.

? ? ? ? ? 信長之所以能夠打敗對手并保持其高于對手的軍閥地位，并繼續(xù)擴大其領土控制，這要歸功于他龐大、裝備精良的軍隊，其中包括有才華的將軍豐臣秀吉（他是信長的繼承人）。信長是一位創(chuàng)新者，因為他是最早采用火器的日本領導人之一，他的軍隊擁有一支由 3,000 名火槍手組成的軍團。他們在戰(zhàn)斗中輪流射擊，以制造連續(xù)而毀滅性的火力。信長的軍隊也是第一個為包括步兵在內(nèi)的每個人配備全副武裝的軍隊。信長獲得的領土被交給他忠誠的指揮官管理，而被俘虜?shù)能婇y的土地經(jīng)常被重新分配和遷移，以打破舊的忠誠關系。

In order to secure his grip on power, Nobunaga attempted to reduce the income of his rival daimyo (feudal lords) by abolishing the tolls on all roads. He boosted his own coffers by minting the first Japanese currency since 958 CE and standardising the exchange rates between all the different coins then in use. Another lucrative source of cash was to release merchants from their guilds and have them pay the state a fee instead. From 1571 CE an extensive land survey was begun to make the tax system more efficient. Another policy was to confiscate all weapons held by the peasantry from 1576 CE onwards, the so-called 'sword hunts', something his successors would also do. Meanwhile, Nobunaga continued to expand his territory, his goal was nothing less than a unified Japan. Not for nothing did the warlord emblazon on his personal seal 'Tenka Fubu' or 'a Unified Realm under Military Rule.'

? ? ? ? ? 為了確保對權力的控制，信長試圖通過取消所有道路的收費來減少他的對手大名（封建領主）的收入。他通過鑄造自公元958年以來的第一種日本貨幣，并將當時使用的所有不同硬幣之間的匯率標準化，來充盈自己的金庫。另一個有利可圖的現(xiàn)金來源是將商人從他們的行會中釋放出來，讓他們向國家支付費用。從 1571 年開始，詳盡的土地地籍開始使稅收制度更有效率。另一項政策是從 1576 年起沒收農(nóng)民持有的所有武器，即所謂的“刀狩令”，他的繼任者也會這樣做。與此同時，信長繼續(xù)擴張領土，以統(tǒng)一日本為目標。這位軍閥在他的個人印章上印上了“Tenka Fubu”（“軍事統(tǒng)治下的統(tǒng)一王國”）這不是沒有道理的。

It was not just rival lords who suffered under Nobunaga's ambition, many Buddhist temples - rich and powerful institutions at the time, several of which could field small armies - were attacked, too. The most infamous example of this policy was his destruction of the Enryakuji monastic complex on the sacred Mt. Hiei near Kyoto in 1571 CE. 25,000 men, women, and children were butchered in the attack. In contrast, Nobunaga encouraged the work of Christian missionaries in Japan as he saw the benefit of European contacts which brought trade and technology such as the firearms he put to such devastating use. The decline of the Buddhist temples also had repercussions in Japanese art with paintings, screens, sculptures and architectural decorations like door panels now becoming more secular in their subject matter - birds, flowers, and people doing everyday tasks were especially popular - and a great deal more flashy with bold colours and gilding aplenty.

? ? ? ? ? 不僅敵對領主遭受了信長野心的后果，而且許多佛教寺廟（當時有錢有勢的機構(gòu)，以至于其中幾家可以派遣小軍隊）也遭到?jīng)_擊。這項政策最臭名昭著的例子是 1571 年在京都附近神圣的比睿山上的延歷寺寺院建筑群遭到破壞。在那里，有 25,000 名男女老少在襲擊中被屠殺。另一方面，信長鼓勵在日本的基督教傳教士的工作，因為他們看到與帶來貿(mào)易和技術的歐洲人接觸可以帶來的好處，以及他如此使用的火器具有毀滅性。佛教寺廟的衰落也對日本藝術產(chǎn)生了影響，繪畫、屏風、雕塑和門板等建筑裝飾品的題材變得更加世俗化（鳥、花和做日常工作的人特別受歡迎），而且色彩大膽，鍍金很多，非常華麗。

On 21 June 1582 CE Nobunaga, a man with innumerable enemies, was betrayed by one of his vassal allies, Akechi Mitsuhide. In an episode known as the Honnoji Incident, Mitsuhide, for reasons unknown, successfully attacked Nobunaga's position and, according to one version of the story, when it became clear that his capture was imminent, the man who then controlled half of Japan committed suicide. In a different version, the warlord died in flames as the temple burnt down. Nobunaga's son and chosen heir, Nobutada, died in the same disaster.

? ? ? ? ? 公元1582年6月21日，樹敵無數(shù)的信長被他的盟友之一明智光秀背叛了。在被稱為“本能寺之變”（本能寺の変）的事件中，光秀不知為何成功地攻陷了信長的陣地，并且根據(jù)一個版本的故事，當他將被俘虜?shù)南⒆兊妹骼蕰r，這個控制半個日本的人自殺了。在另一個版本中，信長在寺廟被燒毀時死于火中。信長的兒子和選定的繼承人信忠也死于同一場災難中。

豐臣秀吉

Nobunaga's death would be avenged swiftly when his foremost general Totoyomi Hideyoshi defeated Mitsuhide at the Battle of Yamazaki and declared himself Nobunaga's successor. Hideyoshi would rule Japan from 1582 to 1598 CE. Hideyoshi's choice of base at his Momoyama castle ('Peach Mountain') in Fushimi, south of Heiankyo, would give the period the second half of its name. Castles, which had sprung up everywhere in the troubled times of the preceding Muromachi Period, were now clearly more for show than defence, although many had impressive wide moats and the introduction of firearms to Japan did necessitate a greater use of stone, thicker walls and windows for musketeers (often triangular) just in case a castle were ever attacked. However, as with the famous Himeji Castle (1581-1609 CE), most castles were never actually attacked. Many castles, too, continued to create ever-widening settlements around them and some of these castle towns would eventually become major cities like Edo (Tokyo) and Osaka.

? ? ? ? ? ?當他的著名將軍豐臣秀吉在山崎之戰(zhàn)中擊敗光秀并宣布自己為信長的繼任者時，信長的死將很快得到報仇。秀吉將在公元1582年至1598年期間統(tǒng)治日本。他選擇了位于平安京南部伏見的桃山城（'桃山'）作為基地，這也為這一時期的后半部分命名。在室町時代早期的動蕩時期，城堡如雨后春筍般出現(xiàn)，現(xiàn)在顯然更多的是為了觀賞而不是防御，盡管許多有令人印象深刻的寬闊護城河，而且火器引入日本后，確實需要更多地使用石頭、更厚的墻壁和火槍手的射擊窗戶（通常是三角形的），以防城堡受到攻擊。然而，就像著名的姬路城（公元1581-1609年）一樣，大多數(shù)城堡實際上從未受到過攻擊。許多城堡也繼續(xù)在其周圍建立了越來越廣泛的定居點，其中一些城堡城鎮(zhèn)最終成為主要城市，如江戶（東京）和大阪。

Hideyoshi commanded a force of some 200,000 men and, like his predecessor, he successfully combined military campaigns with diplomacy amongst his rival daimyo to establish himself as the ruler of most of Japan in 1590 CE. In a five-year period beginning in 1585 CE, Hideyoshi had attacked western Japan, Kyushu, and Shikoku. As with other military leaders, Hideyoshi still sought legitimacy from the monarchy. To gain royal favour from the emperor (who had no real power of his own), he gave money for court ceremonies and rebuilt the palace at the capital. Hideyoshi ultimately awarded himself the title of Taiko ('retired regent').

? ? ? ? ? 秀吉指揮著一支約20萬人的部隊，并且像他的前任一樣，成功地將軍事行動與外交手段結(jié)合起來對付他的對手。在公元1590年確立了自己在日本大部分地區(qū)的統(tǒng)治者地位。從公元1585年開始的五年時間里，秀吉進攻了日本西部、九州和四國。與其他軍事領導人一樣，秀吉仍在尋求君主制的合法性。為了獲得天皇（他自己沒有實權）的青睞，他為宮廷儀式提供資金，并重建了首都的宮殿。秀吉最終授予自己Taiko的稱號（“退休的攝政王”）。

Hideyoshi is noted for his policies and reforms when he governed Japan. To fund the state he extracted taxes from the peasantry and the commercial activities in larger cities. In 1591 CE Hideyoshi developed a rigid class system with different levels for a warrior (shi), farmer (no), artisan (ko), and merchant (sho), the often-called shi-no-ko-sho system. Each class was given an importance based on its production value, and no movement between the levels was permitted, meaning that, for example, only a young man born into a samurai family could become a samurai. Another consequence was that samurai could not be both warriors and part-time farmers as they had been in the past and so now they had to choose one way of life over the other, making them wholly dependent for their pay on their lord if they did choose to serve as samurai. The system, although a little confused in practice and certainly not rigidly imposed everywhere, would remain in place right through the Edo Period (1603-1868 CE).

? ? ? ? ? ?秀吉以其統(tǒng)治日本時的政策和改革而聞名。為了給國家提供資金，他向農(nóng)民和大城市的商業(yè)活動征稅。公元1591年，秀吉制定了一個嚴格的階級制度，對武士（shi）、農(nóng)民（no）、工匠（ko）和商人（shou）劃分了不同的等級，即通常所說的四民制度。每個等級都根據(jù)其生產(chǎn)價值被賦予重要性，并且不允許階級之間的流動，這意味著，例如，只有出生在武士家庭的年輕人才能成為武士。另一個后果是，武士不能像過去那樣既是武士又是兼職農(nóng)民，所以現(xiàn)在他們不得不選擇一種生活方式，如果他們選擇當武士的話，他們的報酬就完全依賴于其效忠的領主。該系統(tǒng)雖然在實踐中有些混亂，而且肯定不是在所有地方都嚴格執(zhí)行，但在整個江戶時代（1603-1868 年）仍然存在。

In 1587 CE Hideyoshi passed an edict to expel all Christian missionaries from Japan but it was only half-heartedly enforced. Concerned that the Jesuits were encouraging the persecution of Buddhist and Shinto believers and that Portuguese traders were selling Japanese as slaves, another edict was passed in 1597 CE. This time a more serious intent was established with the mutilation and execution by crucifixion of 26 Christians in Nagasaki which included priests who had defied the first edict. Still, after this brutal beginning, the campaign to rid Japan of this foreign religion was largely abandoned as impractical and, in any case, Hideyoshi did not want to jeopardise the lucrative silk-for-silver trade with Portuguese-controlled Macao. The Japanese leader's preoccupation with trade is evidenced in his determined campaign to wipe out the wako pirates that plagued East Asian seas. Putting them to his own use, Hideyoshi permitted pirate ships to legitimately trade, provided they carried his own personal red seal, hence their common name of shuin-sen or 'red seal ships.'

? ? ? ? ? 公元1587年，秀吉下詔將所有基督教傳教士逐出日本，僅部分得到遵守。由于擔心耶穌會教徒鼓勵迫害佛教徒和神道教徒，以及葡萄牙商人將日本人賣為奴隸，在公元1597年通過了另一項詔書。這一次，長崎的26名基督徒被肢解并被釘死在十字架上，其中包括違抗第一道詔書的牧師，證實了事情的嚴重性。然而，在這個殘酷的開端之后，使日本擺脫這種外國宗教的運動在很大程度上被放棄了，因為它不切實際，而且，無論如何，秀吉在任何情況下都不想危及與葡萄牙人控制的澳門用絲綢換取白銀的有利可圖的交易。這位日本領導人對貿(mào)易的關注在他堅決消滅困擾東亞海域的海盜的運動中得到了證明。秀吉讓他們?yōu)樽约悍?，允許海盜船合法地進行貿(mào)易，只要它們蓋上他個人的紅印，因此它們被稱為shuin-sen（朱印船）。

日本對朝鮮的入侵

Such was his total grip on Japan, Hideyoshi began to look elsewhere for military action. Between 1592 and 1598 CE Hideyoshi would twice invade Korea in a conflict known as the Imjin Wars. The attack was meant to pave the way for an invasion of China, then ruled by the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), and this hugely ambitious plan has led some to consider Hideyoshi deranged.

? ? ? ? ? 對日本的完全控制后，秀吉開始在別處發(fā)起軍事行動。在公元1592年和1598年之間，秀吉將在一場被稱為“臨津戰(zhàn)爭”的沖突中兩次入侵朝鮮。這次進攻的目的是為入侵當時由明朝（公元1368-1644年）統(tǒng)治的中國鋪平道路，這個過于雄心勃勃的計劃讓一些人認為秀吉精神錯亂。

Whatever his motives and mental state, Hideyoshi certainly displayed his renowned planning and logistics skills as a fleet carrying 158,000 men landed in Korea at Busan (Pusan) and got off to a flying start. Cities like Pyongyang and Seoul were captured as the Koreans were caught entirely by surprise and King Seonjo (r. 1567-1608 CE) fled to the north of his country. The Japanese advantage in possessing firearms was another telling factor in the success.

? ? ? ? ? 不管他的動機和精神狀態(tài)如何，當 158,000 人的艦隊以吉祥的開端登陸韓國釜山（釜山）時，秀吉無疑展示了他著名的計劃和后勤技能。平壤和漢城等城市被占領，因為朝鮮人完全被打了個措手不及，朝鮮宣祖（公元1567-1608年）逃到了北部。日本人在擁有火器方面的優(yōu)勢是成功的另一個重要因素。

Eventually, though, the combined operations of the Korean navy led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin (l. 1545-1598 CE) which had covered-deck 'turtle-ships' (kobukson) armed with cannons, a large land army from Ming China, and well-organised local rebels resulted in the first invasion stalling in 1593 CE as the Japanese could not resupply their northern armies. The Japanese did remain in occupation of the south of the peninsula.

? ? ? ? ? 但最終，由李舜臣（公元1545-1598年）領導的朝鮮海軍（擁有配備大炮的有頂甲板的“龜船”）、來自明朝中國的大批陸軍以及組織嚴密的地方叛軍的聯(lián)合行動，導致第一次入侵在公元1593年停滯，因為日本人無法為他們的北方軍隊提供補給。但日本人仍然占領著半島的南部地區(qū)。

After protracted and unsuccessful peace talks, Hideyoshi launched a second, much less successful invasion in 1597 CE, and when the warlord died the next year, the Japanese forces withdrew from the peninsula. One of the largest military operations ever undertaken in East Asia prior to the 20th century CE, the conflict would not only have devastating consequences for all concerned in terms of loss of life and the depredation of agriculture and culturally important properties but permanently sour relations between Japan and Korea. The war had also cost the Ming Dynasty a fortune and contributed to its ultimate decline.

? ? ? ? ? 經(jīng)過曠日持久且不成功的和平談判后，秀吉于 1597 年發(fā)動了遠沒有那么成功的第二次入侵，次年軍閥去世時，日本軍隊撤出了半島。這場沖突是公元20世紀之前東亞地區(qū)有史以來最大的軍事行動之一，它不僅在人口損失、農(nóng)業(yè)和重要文化財產(chǎn)的掠奪給所有相關方帶來了毀滅性的后果，而且使日本和朝鮮之間的關系永久惡化。這場戰(zhàn)爭也讓明朝損失慘重，并導致其最終衰落。

德川家康

Hideyoshi died of natural causes on 18 September 1598 CE, but he had already arranged for five senior ministers (tairo) to share the role of regent for his young son. These men, though, only fought amongst themselves for supremacy. One of these was Tokugawa Ieyasu (r. 1603-1605 CE) of the Matsudaira family, who had already unsuccessfully challenged Hideyoshi way back in 1584 CE. Ieyasu would eventually establish himself as military supremo after winning the 1600 CE Battle of Skeigahara against those generals who supported Hideyoshi's son. Ieyasu took the title of shogun in 1603 CE and thus established the Tokugawa Shogunate which finally saw the complete unification of Japan and which then enjoyed some 250 years of peace. As the old Japanese saying goes, "Nobunaga mixed the cake, Hideyoshi baked it, and Ieyasu ate it" (Beasley, 117). This next period of Japanese history would be known as the Edo Period after the capital was moved to that city, now known as Tokyo.

? ? ? ? ? 公元1598年9月18日，秀吉自然死亡，但他已經(jīng)安排了五位高級大臣（tairo）為他年幼的兒子分擔攝政王的角色。不過，這些人只是為了爭奪最高權力而相互爭斗。其中一個是松平家族的德川家康（公元1603-1605年），他早在公元1584年就挑戰(zhàn)過秀吉，但沒有成功。在公元1600年的關原之戰(zhàn)中，家康在與支持秀吉兒子的將軍們的較量中獲勝，最終確立了自己的軍事最高地位。1603 年，家康成為幕府將軍，建立了德川幕府，最終實現(xiàn)了日本的完全統(tǒng)一，并享受了約250年的和平。正如日本的一句諺語所說，“信長做餅，秀吉烤餅，家康吃餅”（Beasley，117）。日本歷史的下一個時期被稱為江戶時代，因為首都被遷到了江戶，也就是現(xiàn)在的東京。