The Mali Empire (1240-1645) of West Africa was founded by Sundiata Keita (r. 1230-1255) following his victory over the kingdom of Sosso (c. 1180-1235). Sundiata's centralised government, diplomacy and well-trained army permitted a massive military expansion which would pave the way for a flourishing of the Mali Empire, making it the largest yet seen in Africa.

? ? ? ? ? 西非的馬里帝國(guó)（1240-1645）是由松迪亞塔·凱塔（1230-1255年）在戰(zhàn)勝索索王國(guó)（約1180-1235年）后建立的。松迪亞塔的中央集權(quán)政府、外交和訓(xùn)練有素的軍隊(duì)推動(dòng)了大規(guī)模的軍事擴(kuò)張，這為馬里帝國(guó)的繁榮鋪平道路，使其成為非洲迄今為止最大的帝國(guó)。

The reign of Mansa Musa I (1312-1337) saw the empire reach new heights in terms of territory controlled, cultural florescence, and the staggering wealth brought through Mali's control of regional trade routes. Acting as a middle-trader between North Africa via the Sahara Desert and the Niger River to the south, Mali exploited the traffic in gold, salt, copper, ivory, and slaves that crisscrossed West Africa. Muslim merchants were attracted to all this commercial activity, and they converted Mali rulers who in turn spread Islam via such noted centres of learning as Timbuktu. In contrast to cities like Niani (the capital), Djenne, and Gao, most of the rural Mali population remained farmers who clung to their traditional animist beliefs. The Mali Empire collapsed in the 1460s following civil wars, the opening up of trade routes elsewhere, and the rise of the neighbouring Songhai Empire, but it did continue to control a small part of the western empire into the 17th century.

? ? ? ? ?曼薩·穆薩一世（Mansa Musa I，1312-1337）在位期間，帝國(guó)在控制的領(lǐng)土、文化繁榮以及對(duì)區(qū)域貿(mào)易路線的控制而帶來(lái)的驚人財(cái)富方面達(dá)到了新的高度。作為通過(guò)撒哈拉沙漠的北非和南邊的尼日爾河之間的中間貿(mào)易商，馬里利用了在西非縱橫交錯(cuò)的黃金、鹽、銅、象牙和奴隸的貿(mào)易資源。穆斯林商人被這些商業(yè)活動(dòng)所吸引，他們改變了馬里統(tǒng)治者的信仰，而統(tǒng)治者又通過(guò)廷巴克圖等著名城市傳播伊斯蘭教。與尼亞尼（首都）、杰內(nèi)和加奧等城市相比，馬里的大多數(shù)農(nóng)村人口仍然是堅(jiān)持傳統(tǒng)泛靈論（萬(wàn)物有靈論）信仰。15世紀(jì)60年代，隨著內(nèi)戰(zhàn)、其他貿(mào)易路線的開辟以及鄰國(guó)桑海帝國(guó)的崛起，馬里帝國(guó)崩潰了，但它確實(shí)繼續(xù)控制著西部帝國(guó)的一小部分，直到17世紀(jì)。

西非及蘇丹地區(qū)

The Sudan region of West Africa where the Mali Empire would develop had been inhabited since the Neolithic period as evidenced by Iron Age tumuli, megaliths, and remains of abandoned villages. The Niger River regularly flooded parts of this dry grassland and savannah, which provided fertile land for agriculture beginning at least 3,500 years ago, an endeavour greatly helped by the region's adequate annual rainfall. Cereals such as red-skinned African rice and millet were grown with success, as were pulses, tuber and root crops, oil and fibre plants, and fruits. Fishing and cattle herding were other important sources of food, while local deposits of copper were exploited and used for trade. Similarly, gold was probably locally mined or panned and then traded, but concrete evidence from this period is lacking.

? ? ? ? ? 馬里帝國(guó)后來(lái)發(fā)展的西非蘇丹地區(qū)，自新石器時(shí)代起就有人居住，鐵器時(shí)代的古墓、巨石和廢棄的村莊遺跡就是證明。尼日爾河周期性地淹沒(méi)這片干旱草原和稀樹草原，至少在3500年前就為農(nóng)業(yè)提供了肥沃的土地，在很大程度上得益于該地區(qū)充足的年降雨量。谷物如紅皮非洲大米和小米的種植取得了成功，豆類、塊莖和根莖作物、油料和纖維植物以及水果也是如此。漁業(yè)和牲畜是其他重要的食物來(lái)源，而當(dāng)?shù)氐你~礦被開采并用于貿(mào)易。同樣，黃金也可能在當(dāng)?shù)乇婚_采或淘洗，然后進(jìn)行交易，但沒(méi)有這一時(shí)期的具體證據(jù)。

The Ghana Empire (6th to 13th century) was the first major political power in West Africa to create an empire based on military might and the wealth gained from regional trade. Not geographically connected to modern-day Ghana but located to the northwest, the empire was in serious decline by the end of the 12th century. Beset by civil wars, rebellions of subjugated chiefdoms, and poor harvests, the empire began to disintegrate with a large part of its territory taken over by the kingdom of Sosso (aka Susu). When the Sosso king Sumanguru (aka Sumaoro Kante, r. from c. 1200), imposed trade restrictions on the Mali region, the native Malinke (Mandingo) tribe rose in rebellion.

? ? ? ? ? 加納帝國(guó)（6至13世紀(jì)）是西非第一個(gè)建立基于軍事實(shí)力和區(qū)域貿(mào)易財(cái)富的政治大國(guó)。該帝國(guó)在地理上與現(xiàn)代加納沒(méi)有聯(lián)系，但位于西北部，到12世紀(jì)末已嚴(yán)重衰落。受內(nèi)戰(zhàn)、被征服的酋長(zhǎng)王國(guó)的叛亂和歉收的困擾，帝國(guó)開始瓦解，其大部分領(lǐng)土被索索王國(guó)（又名蘇蘇）接管。當(dāng)索索國(guó)王蘇曼古魯（Sumanguru）（又名蘇曼古魯·坎特，約1200年起）對(duì)馬里地區(qū)實(shí)施貿(mào)易限制時(shí)，當(dāng)?shù)氐鸟R林克（Mandingo，曼丁哥人）部落起來(lái)反抗。

松迪亞塔政權(quán)

Sundiata Keita (aka Sunjaata or Sundjata, r. 1230-1255) was a Malinke prince, whose name means 'lion prince', and he waged war against the kingdom of Sosso from the 1230s. Sundiata formed a powerful alliance of other disgruntled chiefs tired of Sumanguru's harsh rule and defeated the Sosso in a decisive battle at Krina (aka Kirina) in 1235. In 1240 Sundiata captured the old Ghana capital. Forming a centralised government of tribal leaders and a number of influential Arab merchants, this assembly (gbara) declared Sundiata the supreme monarch and gave him such honorary titles as Mari Diata (Lord Lion). The name Sundiata gave to his empire, Africa's largest up to that point, was Mali, meaning 'the place where the king lives'. It was also decreed that all future kings would be selected from the Keita clan, although the title was not necessarily given to the eldest son of a ruler, which sometimes led to fierce disputes among candidates.

? ? ? ? ? 松迪亞塔·凱塔（又名Sunjaata或Sundjata，1230-1255年）是一位曼丁哥王子，其名字的意思是“獅子王子”，他從13世紀(jì)30年代開始對(duì)索索王國(guó)發(fā)動(dòng)了戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)。松迪亞塔與其他厭倦了蘇曼古魯嚴(yán)酷統(tǒng)治的、充斥著不滿情緒的酋長(zhǎng)們組成了一個(gè)強(qiáng)大的聯(lián)盟，并于1235年在克里納（又名基里納）的一場(chǎng)決定性戰(zhàn)役中打敗了索索人。1240年，松迪亞塔占領(lǐng)了加納的舊首都。這個(gè)由部落首領(lǐng)和一些有影響力的阿拉伯商人組成的中央集權(quán)政府（gbara）宣布松迪亞塔為最高君主，并授予他Mari Diata（獅子王）等榮譽(yù)稱號(hào)。松迪亞塔給他的帝國(guó)——迄今為止非洲最大的帝國(guó)——起名為馬里，意思是“國(guó)王居住的地方”。他還頒布法令，所有未來(lái)的國(guó)王都要從凱塔氏族中挑選，盡管這個(gè)頭銜不一定授予統(tǒng)治者的長(zhǎng)子，這有時(shí)會(huì)導(dǎo)致候選人之間的激烈爭(zhēng)執(zhí)。

The Mansa, or king, would be assisted by an assembly of elders and local chiefs throughout the Mali Empire's history, with audiences held in the royal palace or under a large tree. The king was also the supreme source of justice, but he did make use of legal advisors. In addition, the king was helped by a number of key ministers such as the chief of the army and master of the granaries (later treasury), as well as other officials like the master of ceremonies and leader of the royal orchestra. Nevertheless, the Mansa acted as a supreme monarch and monopolised key trade goods, for example, only he was permitted to possess gold nuggets, traders had to make do with gold dust. The king had certain mystical qualities attributed to him, and all slaves were exclusively loyal to him. No person had the right to be in the king's presence when he ate, for example, and all visitors before him had to be barefoot and bow down and pour dust over their heads. Such was this cult of leadership and the extreme centralisation of government in a single figure that the fortunes of the empire rose and fell depending on the talents or lack of them possessed by a particular king.

? ? ? ? ? 在整個(gè)馬里帝國(guó)的歷史中，曼薩，或國(guó)王，會(huì)得到長(zhǎng)老和地方酋長(zhǎng)大會(huì)的協(xié)助，聽證會(huì)在王宮或大樹下舉行。國(guó)王也是司法的最高來(lái)源，但他確實(shí)利用了法律顧問(wèn)。此外，國(guó)王還會(huì)得到一些重要大臣的幫助，如軍隊(duì)首領(lǐng)和糧倉(cāng)總管（后來(lái)的財(cái)政部），以及其他官員，如司儀和皇家樂(lè)團(tuán)的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)。然而，曼薩作為至高無(wú)上的君主，他壟斷了關(guān)鍵的貿(mào)易商品，例如，只有他被允許擁有金塊，商人們只能用金粉來(lái)交易。國(guó)王具有某些被賦予的神秘品質(zhì)，所有的奴隸都只效忠于他。例如，在國(guó)王吃飯的時(shí)候，任何人都無(wú)權(quán)在他面前出現(xiàn)，所有來(lái)客都必須赤腳、鞠躬，并在頭上澆上灰塵。這種個(gè)人崇拜和一個(gè)人身上的極端集權(quán)，使帝國(guó)的命運(yùn)起伏取決于某個(gè)國(guó)王是否有才能。

These problems of governance were yet to come, though, and Sundiata would continue to expand his territory to include the old kingdoms of Ghana, Walata, Tadmekka, and Songhai. Niani, now no longer in existence but probably located on a plain near the all-year-round navigable Sankarani River, was selected as the empire's capital. It was protected by mountains and was close to the two key sources of trade goods: forests and waterways.

? ? ? ? ? 不過(guò)，這些治理問(wèn)題尚未到來(lái)，松迪亞塔將繼續(xù)擴(kuò)大他的領(lǐng)土，包括加納、瓦拉塔、塔德梅卡和桑海等舊王國(guó)。尼亞尼（Niani）現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)不存在了，但它可能位于常年可通航的?？ɡ岷痈浇钠皆?，在當(dāng)時(shí)是帝國(guó)的首都。它受到山脈的保護(hù)，靠近兩個(gè)關(guān)鍵的貿(mào)易貨物來(lái)源：森林和水路。

Tribute was acquired from conquered chiefdoms, although many local chiefs were permitted to continue to rule their own people but with a Mali-appointed governor to assist them, often backed by a garrison. Additional guarantees of loyalty included taking royal hostages and keeping them at the capital. This federation prospered, developing over the next century into one of Africa's richest ever empires whose wealth would astound both Europe and Arabia. Further, and perhaps more important for the ordinary people of Mali, foreign visitors noted the high degree of justice they saw, the safety with which one could travel from place to place, and the abundance of food in all villages.

? ? ? ? ? 雖然許多地方酋長(zhǎng)被允許繼續(xù)統(tǒng)治他們自己的人民，但有一個(gè)馬里任命的總督協(xié)助他們，并經(jīng)常有駐軍支持，但他們還是從被征服的酋長(zhǎng)領(lǐng)地獲得了貢品。對(duì)忠誠(chéng)的額外保證包括接受皇家人質(zhì)并將其留在首都。這個(gè)聯(lián)盟繁榮昌盛，在接下來(lái)的一個(gè)世紀(jì)里發(fā)展成為非洲有史以來(lái)最富有的帝國(guó)之一，其財(cái)富令歐洲和阿拉伯都感到震驚。此外，也許對(duì)馬里的普通人來(lái)說(shuō)更重要的是，外國(guó)游客評(píng)論說(shuō)他們看到了高度公正，人們可以安全地從一個(gè)地方到另一個(gè)地方，以及所有村莊都有充裕的食物。

貿(mào)易與廷巴克圖

Like its political predecessors, the Mali Empire prospered thanks to trade and its prime location, situated between the rain forests of southern West Africa and the powerful Muslim caliphates of North Africa. The Niger River provided ready access to Africa's interior and Atlantic coast, while the Berber-controlled camel caravans that crossed the Sahara Desert ensured valuable commodities came from the north. The Mali rulers had a triple income: they taxed the passage of trade goods, bought goods and sold them on at much higher prices, and had access to their own valuable natural resources. Significantly, the Mali Empire controlled the rich gold-bearing regions of Galam, Bambuk, and Bure. One of the main trade exchanges was gold dust for salt from the Sahara. Gold was in particular demand from European powers like Castille in Spain and Venice and Genoa in Italy, where coinage was now being minted in the precious metal.

? ? ? ? ? 與其政治前輩一樣，馬里帝國(guó)的繁榮得益于貿(mào)易和其優(yōu)越的地理位置，它位于西非南部的雨林和北非強(qiáng)大的穆斯林哈里發(fā)國(guó)之間。尼日爾河提供了通往非洲內(nèi)陸和大西洋海岸的便利通道，而柏柏爾人控制的穿越撒哈拉沙漠的駱駝商隊(duì)則確保了來(lái)自北方的寶貴商品。馬里統(tǒng)治者有三重收入：他們對(duì)貿(mào)易貨物的通過(guò)征稅，以高得多的價(jià)格購(gòu)買和出售商品，并且可以利用自己寶貴的自然資源。值得注意的是，馬里帝國(guó)控制著盛產(chǎn)金礦的加拉姆、班布克和布雷地區(qū)。主要的貿(mào)易往來(lái)之一是用金粉換取撒哈拉地區(qū)的鹽。西班牙的卡斯蒂利亞和意大利的威尼斯和熱那亞等歐洲大國(guó)對(duì)黃金的需求特別大，這些國(guó)家都在鑄造貴金屬硬幣。

Timbuktu, founded c. 1100 by the nomadic Tuaregs, was a semi-independent trade port which had the double advantage of being on the Niger River bend and the starting point for the trans-Saharan caravans. The city would be monopolised and then taken over by the Mali kings who made it into one of the most important and most cosmopolitan trade centres in Africa. Through Timbuktu there passed such lucrative goods as ivory, textiles, horses (important for military use), glassware, weapons, sugar, kola nuts (a mild stimulant), cereals (e.g. sorghum and millet), spices, stone beads, craft products, and slaves. Goods were bartered for or paid using an agreed upon commodity such as copper or gold ingots, set quantities of salt or ivory, or even cowry shells (which came from Persia).

? ? ? ? ? 廷巴克圖大約在1100年由游牧的圖阿雷格人建立，是一個(gè)半獨(dú)立的貿(mào)易港口，具有位于尼日爾河拐彎處和跨撒哈拉商隊(duì)

起點(diǎn)的雙重優(yōu)勢(shì)。這座城市后來(lái)被馬里國(guó)王壟斷并接管，他們把廷巴克圖變成了非洲最重要和最國(guó)際化的貿(mào)易中心之一。通過(guò)廷巴克圖，象牙、紡織品、馬匹（對(duì)軍事用途很重要）、玻璃制品、武器、糖、可樂(lè)堅(jiān)果（一種溫和的興奮劑）、谷物（如高粱和小米）、香料、石珠、手工藝品和奴隸等有利可圖的貨物被運(yùn)走。貨物是用商定的商品進(jìn)行交換或支付的，如銅錠或金錠、一定數(shù)量的鹽或象牙，甚至是貝殼（來(lái)自波斯）。

曼薩·穆薩一世

After a string of seemingly lacklustre rulers, the Mali Empire enjoyed its second golden era during the reign of Mansa Musa I in the first half of the 13th century. With an army numbering around 100,000 men, including an armoured cavalry corps of 10,000 horses, and with the talented general Saran Mandian, Mansa Musa was able to maintain and extend Mali's empire, doubling its territory. He controlled lands up to the Gambia and lower Senegal in the west; in the north, tribes were subdued along the whole length of the Western Sahara border region; in the east, control spread up to Gao on the Niger River and, to the south, the Bure region and the forests of what became known as the Gold Coast came under Mali oversight. The Mali Empire thus came to include many different religious, ethnic, and linguistic groups.

? ? ? ? ? 在經(jīng)歷了一連串看似乏善可陳的統(tǒng)治者之后，馬里帝國(guó)在13世紀(jì)上半葉的曼薩·穆薩一世統(tǒng)治時(shí)期迎來(lái)了它的第二個(gè)黃金時(shí)代。曼薩·穆薩擁有一支約10萬(wàn)人的軍隊(duì)，包括一支由1萬(wàn)匹馬組成的裝甲騎兵隊(duì)，并擁有才華橫溢的將軍薩蘭·曼迪安，他能夠維持并擴(kuò)大馬里的帝國(guó)，使其領(lǐng)土翻倍。他控制的土地遠(yuǎn)至岡比亞和西部的下塞內(nèi)加爾；北至西撒哈拉邊境地區(qū)的所有部落都被征服；東至尼日爾河上的加奧，南至布雷地區(qū)和后來(lái)被稱為黃金海岸的森林都在馬里的監(jiān)督之下。因此，此時(shí)的馬里帝國(guó)包含了許多不同的宗教、種族和語(yǔ)言群體。

To govern these diverse peoples, Mansa Musa divided his empire into provinces with each one ruled by a governor (farba) appointed personally by him and responsible for local taxes, justice, and settling tribal disputes. The administration was further improved with greater records kept and sent to the centralised government offices at Niani. With more tribute from more conquered chiefs, more trade routes under Mali control, and even more natural resources to exploit, Mansa Musa and the Mali elite became immensely rich. When the Mali king visited Cairo in 1324, he spent or simply gave away so much gold that the price of bullion crashed by 20%. Such riches set off a never-ending round of rumours that Mali was a kingdom paved with gold. In Spain c. 1375, a mapmaker was inspired to create Europe's first detailed map of West Africa, part of the Catalan Atlas. The map has Mansa Musa wearing an impressive gold crown and triumphantly brandishing a huge lump of gold in his hand. European explorers would spend the next five centuries trying to locate the source of this gold and the fabled trading city of Timbuktu.

? ? ? ? ? 為了管理這些不同的民族，曼薩·穆薩將他的帝國(guó)劃分為幾個(gè)省，每個(gè)省由他親自任命的總督（farba）統(tǒng)治，負(fù)責(zé)地方稅收、司法和解決部落爭(zhēng)端。行政管理得到了進(jìn)一步改善，保存了更多的記錄，并送往位于尼亞尼的中央政府辦公室。隨著被征服的酋長(zhǎng)們貢獻(xiàn)更多，更多的貿(mào)易路線在馬里的控制之下，甚至更多的自然資源被逐步開發(fā)，曼薩·穆薩和馬里的精英們變得非常富有。當(dāng)馬里國(guó)王在1324年訪問(wèn)開羅時(shí)，他花掉或干脆送出了大量黃金，以至于金銀價(jià)格暴跌了20%。這樣的財(cái)富掀起了一輪無(wú)休止的謠言，說(shuō)馬里是一個(gè)用黃金鋪成的王國(guó)。約1375年，在西班牙，一位地圖繪制者受到啟發(fā)，繪制了歐洲第一幅詳細(xì)的西非地圖，這是《加泰羅尼亞地圖集》的一部分。該地圖上的曼薩·穆薩頭戴令人印象深刻的金冠，勝利地?fù)]舞著手中的巨大金塊。歐洲探險(xiǎn)家們?cè)诮酉聛?lái)的五個(gè)世紀(jì)里一直試圖找到這些黃金的來(lái)源以及傳說(shuō)中的貿(mào)易城市廷巴克圖。

伊斯蘭教的傳播

Islam spread through parts of West Africa via the Arab merchants who traded there. Noted Muslim travellers and chroniclers like Ibn Battuta (1304 - c. 1369) and Ibn Khaldin (1332-1406) recorded that even Mali's first ruler Sundiata converted to Islam. However, the Malinke oral tradition, which was kept up over the generations by specialised bards (griots), presents a different story. Although recognising Islam was present in Mali long before Sundiata's reign, the oral tradition maintains that the first ruler of the Mali Empire did not reject the indigenous animist religion. We do know that Sundiata's son, Mansa Uli (aka Mansa Wali or Yerelenku), went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in the 1260s or 1270s, and this would be a continuing trend amongst many of Mali's rulers.

? ? ? ? ? 伊斯蘭教通過(guò)在那里進(jìn)行貿(mào)易的阿拉伯商人傳播到西非的部分地區(qū)。著名的穆斯林旅行家和編年史家，如伊本·白圖泰（1304-約1369年）和伊本·哈爾?。?332-1406年）記載，甚至馬里的第一位統(tǒng)治者松迪亞塔也皈依了伊斯蘭教。然而，由專業(yè)吟游詩(shī)人（griots）代代相傳的馬林克口述傳統(tǒng)則講述了一個(gè)不同的故事。盡管承認(rèn)伊斯蘭教早在松迪亞塔統(tǒng)治之前就已經(jīng)存在于馬里，但口述傳統(tǒng)認(rèn)為，馬里帝國(guó)的第一位統(tǒng)治者并沒(méi)有拒絕本土的泛靈論宗教。我們確實(shí)知道，松迪亞塔的兒子瓦利一世（又名Mansa Wali或Yerelenku）在13世紀(jì)60年代或70年代前往麥加朝圣，這將成為馬里許多統(tǒng)治者的持續(xù)趨勢(shì)。 ?

Islam in West Africa really took off, though, from the reign of Mansa Musa I. He famously went to Mecca and, impressed with what he saw on his travels, Mansa Musa brought back home Muslim architects, scholars, and books. Mosques were built such as Timbuktu's 'Great Mosque' (aka Djinguereber or Jingereber), and Koranic schools and universities were established which quickly gained an international reputation. Studies were actually much wider than religion and included history, geography, astronomy, and medicine. Great libraries were built up with tens of thousands of books and manuscripts, many of which survive today.

? ? ? ? ? 西非的伊斯蘭教真正從曼薩·穆薩一世的統(tǒng)治下起飛。他的麥加之旅很有名，曼薩·穆薩對(duì)他在旅途中所見所聞?dòng)∠笊羁?，而且他還帶回了穆斯林建筑師、學(xué)者和書籍。他讓人修建了廷巴克圖的“大清真寺”（又稱Djinguereber或Jingereber），并建立了古蘭經(jīng)學(xué)校和大學(xué)，很快就獲得了國(guó)際聲譽(yù)。這些研究實(shí)際上比宗教廣泛得多，包括歷史、地理、天文學(xué)和醫(yī)學(xué)。還建立了巨大的圖書館，擁有數(shù)以萬(wàn)計(jì)的書籍和手稿，其中許多保存至今。

As more people were converted, so more Muslim clerics were attracted from abroad and the religion was spread further across West Africa. Many native converts studied in such places as Fez, Morocco, and became great scholars, missionaries, and even saints, and so Islam came to be seen no longer as a foreign religion but a black African one. Despite the spread of Islam, it is also true that ancient indigenous animist beliefs continued to be practised, especially in rural communities, as noted by travellers like Ibn Battuta who visited Mali c. 1352. In addition, Islamic studies were conducted in Arabic not native languages, and this further impeded its popularity outside the educated clerical class of towns and cities. Even the Islam that did take hold in Mali was a particular variation of that practised in the Arab world, perhaps because Mali rulers could not afford to completely dismiss the indigenous religious practices and beliefs that the majority of their people clung on to.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著皈依者人數(shù)的增加，也吸引了更多來(lái)自國(guó)外的穆斯林神職人員，宗教在西非進(jìn)一步傳播。許多本土皈依者在非斯（摩洛哥）等地求學(xué)，成為偉大的學(xué)者、傳教士甚至圣人。因此，伊斯蘭教不再被視為外國(guó)宗教，成為黑非洲的宗教。盡管伊斯蘭教得到了傳播，但正如約1352年訪問(wèn)馬里的伊本·白圖泰（Ibn Battuta）等旅行者所指出的那樣，古老的本土泛靈論信仰仍在繼續(xù)，尤其是在農(nóng)村社區(qū)。此外，伊斯蘭教的研究是用阿拉伯文而不是本地母語(yǔ)進(jìn)行的，這進(jìn)一步阻礙了伊斯蘭教在城鎮(zhèn)中受過(guò)教育的教士階層之外的普及。即使是在馬里扎根的伊斯蘭教，也是阿拉伯世界所實(shí)行的伊斯蘭教的一個(gè)特殊變種，也許是因?yàn)轳R里的統(tǒng)治者無(wú)法完全摒棄他們大多數(shù)人所堅(jiān)持的本土宗教習(xí)俗和信仰。

馬里的建筑

The buildings of the Mali Empire, some of which like the Sankore mosque in Timbuktu still stand, are one of the most recognisable features of the region and have become international symbols of Africa's rich pre-colonial history. Mali architects had a distinct disadvantage because of the rarity of stone in the region, and for this reason, buildings were typically constructed using beaten earth (banco) reinforced with wood which often sticks out in beams from the exterior surfaces. Despite the limited materials, the mosques, in particular, are still imposing multi-storied structures with towers, huge wooden doors, and tiered minarets. Other large buildings included warehouses (fondacs) which were used to store goods before they were transported elsewhere and which had up to 40 apartments for merchants to live in. Other examples of the Mali baked-mud buildings which impress today, although many are early 20th-century reconstructions, include the huge mosques at Mopti and Djenne.

? ? ? ? ? ?馬里帝國(guó)的建筑，其中一些如廷巴克圖的?？评浊逭嫠氯匀灰倭⒉坏梗窃摰貐^(qū)最容易識(shí)別的特征之一，并已經(jīng)成為非洲豐富的前殖民歷史的國(guó)際象征。由于該地區(qū)石料稀少，馬里的建筑師有明顯的劣勢(shì)，因此，建筑通常使用粘土（banco），用木頭加固，木頭經(jīng)常從外表面伸出來(lái)，形成橫梁。盡管材料有限，但尤其是清真寺，仍然是氣勢(shì)恢宏的多層建筑，有塔樓、巨大的木門和分層尖塔。其他大型建筑包括倉(cāng)庫(kù)（fondacs），這些倉(cāng)庫(kù)在貨物被運(yùn)往其他地方之前用于儲(chǔ)存貨物，并且有多達(dá)40個(gè)公寓供商人居住。馬里粘土建筑的其他例子今天給人留下深刻印象，盡管許多是20世紀(jì)初的重建，包括莫普提和杰內(nèi)的巨大清真寺。

On a smaller scale, excavations at Niani have revealed the remains of houses and their stone foundations, confirming later sources that the richer members of society built stone houses. Arab chroniclers describe another type of domestic building, which was constructed using beaten earth bricks and with ceilings made of wooden beams and reeds, the whole formed into a conical roof. Flooring was made using earth mixed with sand.

? ? ? ? ? 規(guī)模較小的情況下，在尼亞尼考古發(fā)掘中，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)了房屋及其石質(zhì)地基的遺跡，證實(shí)了后來(lái)的資料顯示，社會(huì)中較富裕的成員建造了石質(zhì)房屋。阿拉伯編年史家描述了另一種類型的家庭建筑，這種建筑使用打制的土磚，天花板由木梁和蘆葦制成，整體形成一個(gè)錐形屋頂。地板是用泥土和沙子混合制成的。

馬里的藝術(shù)與文化

We have already noted that the Malinke had a rich tradition of recounting legends and community histories orally by specialised story-tellers know as griots. These stories, passed down from generation to generation (and continuing today), were often accompanied by music. During the Mali Empire, there were even songs reserved for certain people who alone had the right to have them sung in their honour, this was especially so for renowned warriors and hunters. Music was also an important part of religious festivals when masked dancers performed.

? ? ? ? ? 我們已經(jīng)注意到，馬林克人有一個(gè)豐富的傳統(tǒng)，即由專門的說(shuō)書人（griots）口頭講述傳說(shuō)和社區(qū)歷史。這些故事代代相傳（一直延續(xù)到今天），常常伴隨著音樂(lè)。在馬里帝國(guó)時(shí)期，甚至有專門為某些人保留的歌曲，只有他們才有權(quán)為自己的榮譽(yù)而演唱，這對(duì)著名的戰(zhàn)士和獵人來(lái)說(shuō)尤其如此。音樂(lè)也是宗教節(jié)日的一個(gè)重要組成部分，當(dāng)時(shí)由戴面具的舞者進(jìn)行表演。

Pottery and sculpture were produced, as they had been at noted centres like Djenne since the 9th century. Sculptures are generally up to 50 cm tall and made of solid pottery but sometimes with a reinforcing iron rod interior. Wood and brass were other popular materials for sculpture and, to a lesser degree, stone. Decoration is typically incised, painted, or achieved by adding three-dimensional pieces. Subjects include human figures, especially bearded warriors riding a horse but also many kneeling or crouching figures with upturned faces. Figures are often realistic portrayals of ordinary people, sometimes showing symptoms of tropical diseases. Although it is rare for artworks of this period to come with a certain provenance obtained from professionally excavated sites, the sculptures are so numerous that it seems likely many were used as everyday decorative objects as well as for ritual or burial purposes.

? ? ? ? ? 自 9 世紀(jì)以來(lái)，杰內(nèi)等著名中心就開始生產(chǎn)陶瓷和雕塑。雕塑一般高達(dá)50厘米，由堅(jiān)固的陶器制成，但有時(shí)內(nèi)部有加固的鐵棒。木頭和黃銅是其他流行的雕塑材料，在較小的程度上，還有石頭。紋飾多采用鏤刻、彩繪或加立體片制作。主題包括人物，特別是騎著馬的大胡子戰(zhàn)士，但也有許多跪著或蹲著的人物，臉部上揚(yáng)。這些人物通常是普通人的現(xiàn)實(shí)表現(xiàn)，有時(shí)會(huì)表現(xiàn)出熱帶疾病的癥狀。雖然這一時(shí)期的藝術(shù)品很少有從專業(yè)發(fā)掘的遺址中獲得一定的出處，但這些雕塑數(shù)量眾多，似乎很多都是作為日常裝飾品以及用于儀式或埋葬的。 ?

衰? ? ?落

The Mali Empire was in decline by the 15th century. The ill-defined rules for royal succession often led to civil wars as brothers and uncles fought each other for the throne. Then, as trade routes opened up elsewhere, several rival kingdoms developed to the west, notably the Songhai. European ships, especially those belonging to the Portuguese, were now regularly sailing down the west coast of Africa and so the Saharan caravans faced stiff competition as the most efficient means to transport goods from West Africa to the Mediterranean. There were attacks on Mali by the Tuareg in 1433 and by the Mossi people, who at that time controlled the lands south of the Niger River. Around 1468, King Sunni Ali of the Songhai Empire (r. 1464-1492) conquered the rump of the Mali Empire which was now reduced to controlling a small western pocket of its once great territory. What remained of the Mali Empire would be absorbed into the Moroccan Empire in the mid-17th century.

? ? ? ? ? 馬里帝國(guó)在15世紀(jì)時(shí)已經(jīng)衰落。王室繼承的規(guī)則不明確，經(jīng)常導(dǎo)致兄弟和叔父為爭(zhēng)奪王位而相互爭(zhēng)斗，引發(fā)內(nèi)戰(zhàn)。然后，隨著貿(mào)易路線在其他地方的開辟，幾個(gè)敵對(duì)的王國(guó)向西發(fā)展，特別是桑海。歐洲的船只，特別是屬于葡萄牙人的船只，現(xiàn)在經(jīng)常沿著非洲的西海岸航行，因此撒哈拉商隊(duì)作為從西非向地中海運(yùn)送貨物的最有效方式面臨著激烈的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。1433年，圖阿雷格人和當(dāng)時(shí)控制尼日爾河以南土地的莫西人對(duì)馬里發(fā)動(dòng)了攻擊。1468年左右，桑海帝國(guó)的遜尼派國(guó)王阿里（Sunni Ali）（1464-1492年）征服了馬里帝國(guó)的殘余部分，馬里帝國(guó)現(xiàn)在淪為控制其曾經(jīng)廣闊領(lǐng)土的一小部分西部地區(qū)。馬里帝國(guó)剩下的部分將在17世紀(jì)中期被納入摩洛哥帝國(guó)。 ?

參考書目：

Curtin, P. African History. Pearson, 1995.

de Villiers, M. Timbuktu. Walker Books, 2007.

Desmond Clark, J. (ed). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Fage, J.D. (ed). The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Garlake, P. Early Art and Architecture of Africa. Oxford University Press, 2002.

Hrbek, I. (ed). UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. III, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1992.

Ki-Zerbo, J. (ed). UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1998.

McEvedy, C. The Penguin Atlas of African History. Penguin Books, 1996.

Oliver, R. (ed). The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Oliver, R.A. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa. Cambridge University Press, 1981.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/